10 Early Non-Christian References to Jesus

Popular Doubts About Jesus’ Historicity

In recent years, I have encountered an increasingly popular idea among atheists and anti-theists of my generation, often called the “Christ myth theory.” Variations of this theory usually posit that there was no historical person known as Jesus, whose life was anything like that narrated in the New Testament. When the New Testament itself is brought up as evidence to the contrary, they argue that these sources are biased and so cannot be trusted. There’s a certain irony there, as naturally anyone who believes that accounts of a man rising from the dead are genuine, will necessarily believe some supernatural force is behind it and so will be more predisposed to believe the claims of that man’s followers.

Many followers of the “Christ myth theory” argue instead that the New Testament claims are an amalgam of different religious ideas from all over the Ancient Near East. They often claim that he is simply Osiris, Serapis, Mithras, or Sol Invictus rehashed, and for evidence they will sometimes make completely unsourced claims as to their similarities (which usually evaporate on closer academic inspection).

There are so many competing, contradictory claims associated with this “theory” that they cannot all be addressed here. But one claim can, and it is one often repeated in rapidly shared social media memes: that no contemporary (or near-contemporary) Non-Christian historians or writers refer to an historical Jesus. In reality, there are an abundance of references to Jesus and early Christians by non-followers of Jesus writing within about 80 years (i.e. two generations) of his death.

Just like today, these writers display varying attitudes regarding the beliefs and practices of Christians, with some praising the wise philosophy of their founder and others denigrating their gullibility. Whatever the attitudes expressed, they each demonstrate the very early belief that Jesus was a real historical person and none suggest that he is simply an amalgam or copy of older mythical characters. Even among those who save their most biting ridicule for Jesus and his followers, none ever doubt that he existed.

These writers include both Jewish and Roman historians (Josephus, Tacitus, and Seutonius), a Roman Governor (Pliny the Younger), and a Syrian Stoic philosopher (Mara bar Serapion). These form the earliest Non-Christian references. I’ve also included later quotes from Jewish rabbis (the Babylonian Talmud) and a Roman Satirist (Lucian) as these have their roots in events and oral traditions of the 1st century.

So, to put to bed once and for all the claim that no early secular historian mentions Jesus, I’ve included relevant quotations by each of these authors below, along with information on where each of these quotes can be found in their writings, and source citations in footnotes along the way. Questions of authenticity or relevance are also addressed in the footnotes. Whatever one’s belief regarding the claims by Jesus or his followers, the claim that he didn’t exist or that he was a new face on old mythical characters just doesn’t hold water when faced with the evidence available.

Catalogue of References Included(1)

    • 73-99 AD, Mara bar Serapion, A Letter.

    • 93-94 AD, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, 3:3)

    • 93-94 AD, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, 5:2)

    • 93-94 AD, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20, 9:1)

    • 112 AD, Pliny the Younger, Letters (10, 96-97)

    • 116 AD, Tacitus, Annals (Book 15, 44)

    • 121 AD, Seutonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Claudius, 25)

    • 121 AD, Seutonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Nero, 16)

    • ca. 170 AD, Lucian, The Passing of Peregrinus (11, 13)

    • 175-475 AD, Various Rabbis, The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin, 43a)

Quotations by the Earliest Non-Christian Writers

    • 73-99 AD(2), Syrian Stoic Philosopher Mara bar Serapion (A Letter):

“What are we to say, when the wise are dragged by force by the hands of tyrants, and their wisdom is deprived of its freedom by slander, and they are plundered for their superior intelligence, without the opportunity of making a defence?  They are not wholly to be pitied.  For what benefit did the Athenians obtain by putting Socrates to death, seeing that they received as retribution for it famine and pestilence?  Or the people of Samos by the burning of Pythagoras, seeing that in one hour the whole of their country was covered with sand?  Or the Jews by the murder of their Wise King, seeing that from that very time their kingdom was driven away from them?  For with justice did God grant a recompense to the wisdom of all three of them.  For the Athenians died by famine; and the people of Samos were covered by the sea without remedy; and the Jews, brought to desolation and expelled from their kingdom, are driven away into every land.  Nay, Socrates did ‘not’ die, because of Plato; nor yet Pythagoras, because of the statue of Hera; nor yet the Wise King, because of the new laws which he enacted.”(3)

    • 93-94 AD(4), Jewish Historian Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, 3:3)(5):

“Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.”(6)

    • 93-94 AD, Jewish Historian Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, 5:2):(7)

“Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism; for that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away [or the remission] of some sins [only], but for the purification of the body; supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness. Now when [many] others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved [or pleased] by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready to do any thing he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment upon Herod, and a mark of God's displeasure to him.”(8)

    • 93-94 AD, Jewish Historian Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20, 9:1):

“And now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator. But the king deprived Joseph of the high priesthood, and bestowed the succession to that dignity on the son of Ananus, who was also himself called Ananus... But this younger Ananus, who, as we have told you already, took the high priesthood, was a bold man in his temper, and very insolent; he was also of the sect of the Sadducees, who are very rigid in judging offenders, above all the rest of the Jews, as we have already observed; when, therefore, Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he had now a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]... so he assembled the sanhedrim of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others, [or, some of his companions]; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned: but as for those who seemed the most equitable of the citizens, and such as were the most uneasy at the breach of the laws, they disliked what was done...”(9)

    • 112 AD(10), Roman Governor Pliny the Younger, Letters (10, 96-97):

Governor Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

“It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.

Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.

I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded.”

Emperor Trajan to Governor Pliny

“You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.”(11)

    • 116 AD(12), Roman Historian Tacitus, Annals (Book 15, 44):

“But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration(13) was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed."(14)

    • 121 AD, Roman Historian Seutonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Claudius, 25):

“Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome.”(15)

    • 121 AD(16), Roman Historian Seutonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Nero, 16):

“During his reign many abuses were severely punished and put down, and no fewer new laws were made: a limit was set to expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution of food; the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas before every sort of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the chariot drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their partisans were banished from the city.”(17)

    • ca. 170 AD(18), Roman Satirist Lucian, The Passing of Peregrinus (11, 13):

“It was then that [Peregrinus](19) learned the wondrous lore of the Christians, by associating with their priests and scribes in Palestine... and they revered him...  next after that other [Jesus](20), to be sure, whom they still worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because he introduced this new cult into the world...
The poor wretches have convinced themselves, first and foremost, that they are going to be immortal and live for all time, in consequence of which they despise death and even willingly give themselves into custody; most of them. Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they are all brothers of one another after they have transgressed once, for all by denying the Greek gods and by worshiping that crucified sophist himself and living under his laws. Therefore they despise all things indiscriminately and consider them common property, receiving such doctrines traditionally without any definite evidence. So if any charlatan and trickster, able to profit by occasions, comes among them, he quickly acquires sudden wealth by imposing upon simple folk.”(21)

    • 175-475 AD(22), Various Jewish Rabbis, The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 43a)(23):

“[But](24) it was taught: On the even of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, 'He is going forth to be stoned because has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy. Any one who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.' But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the even of the Passover! — 'Ulla retorted: Do you suppose that he was one for whom a defence could be made? Was he not a Meshith [enticer], concerning whom Scripture says, Neither shalt thou spare, neither shalt thou conceal him.'
With Yeshu however it was different, for he was connected with the government [or royalty, i.e., influential].
Our Rabbis taught: Yeshu had five disciples, Matthai, Nakai, Netzer, Buni and Todah.”(25)

Relevant Christian Witnesses

Though the primary purpose of this piece is to collate a selection of the earliest Non-Christian references to Jesus and his followers, the antiquity of Christian witnesses to Jesus’ life must be acknowledged to gain a complete picture of just how prolific early references to Jesus as an historical figure really were. These Christian witnesses include at least ten different writers of the New Testament who were either eye witnesses themselves, or who relied on oral traditions and even interviews of eye witnesses themselves.(26)

    • Probably the most significant New Testament quote to refer to eye witnesses comes from Paul the Apostle, writing only 20 years after Jesus’ death.(27)(28) He says in 1 Cor. 15:3-8:

“For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.”(29)

Then there is also the often overlooked collection of writings termed the Apostolic Fathers, written by men who personally knew and followed the Apostles themselves. These include Clement (a follower of the Apostle Peter), and Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias (all followers of the Apostle John), as well as the writers of the Martyrdom of Polycarp, 2 Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistle to Diognetus, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Didache.(30)

    • Within this collection is a short quotation of Quadratus of Athens referring to eye witnesses alive in his own lifetime, written in 124-125 AD(31), and preserved by the Church historian Eusebius:(32)

“But the works of our Saviour were always present, for they were genuine:— those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not only when they were healed and when they were raised, but were also always present; and not merely while the Saviour was on earth, but also after his death, they were alive for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day.”

Given all this evidence: Multiple near-contemporary Non-Christian writers, multiple contemporary Christian writers, and the testimony of hundreds of eye witnesses all make the idea that Jesus didn’t really exist an extreme improbability, if not an impossibility to any truly reasoning mind.

Footnotes

(1) The dates provided refer only to scholarly consensus regarding the quotations themselves. In the case of the Babylonian Talmud, material was added over centuries, but the specific quotes cited carry with them the associated dates.

(2) Van Voorst, Robert E. Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. (Eerdmans Publishing, 2000), 53-56.

(3) Mara bar Serapion, A Letter. Transl. By Benjamin Plummer Pratten.

(4) Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday, 1997).

(5) This is probably the most contested quote in this collection. Scholars debate whether a later Christian scribe modified this section to reflect Christian attitudes, and most believe this to be the case. Even so, the consensus is that the original passage written by Josephus included a reference to Jesus and to his execution by Pilate, and so it still provides an important witness to the events described.

(6) Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Transl. By William Whiston.

(7) Though this passage doesn’t mention Jesus or Christians, its description of the ministry of John the Baptist is so striking, that its inclusion is appropriate to demonstrate the multiple points at which the Gospel accounts agree with outside sources.

(8) Ibid.

(9) Ibid.

(10) Carrington, Philip. The Early Christian Church, Vol. 1. (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 429.

(11) Pliny the Younger, Letters. Transl. By Unknown. Retrieved from Georgetown University Website on Mar. 18, 2019.

(12) The Cambridge History of Latin Literature. Ed. By P.E. Easterling & E.J. Kenney. (Cambridge University Press, 1982), 892.

(13) The fire that ravaged Rome during Emperor Nero’s reign.

(14) Tacitus, Annals. Transl. By Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (1876).

(15) Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars. Transl. By Catharine Edwards, (2001), 184, 203.

(16) “Seutonius,” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. Retrieved Mar. 18, 2019.

(17) Ibid.

(18) Estimation by me, based on Peregrinus’ self-immolation at the Olympic Games of 165 AD.

(19) Clarification mine.

(20) Clarification mine.

(21) Lucian, The Passing of Peregrinus. Transl. By A.M. Harmon.

(22) The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon. Ed. By Nosson Dovid Rabinowich. (Jerusalem, 1988), 79, 116.

(23) There are numerous passages in both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds which may refer to Jesus or his followers. Some are passing references to followers healing in his name (cf. Tosefta Hullin 2:22f), while others consist of polemical word plays possibly intended to ridicule the Virgin Birth (cf. Sanhedrin 67a; Shabbat 104b and Celsus’ On the True Doctrine, written in 175-177 AD and preserved in Origen’s Contra Celsum) or as allegorical stories designed to illustrate Mishnaic points unrelated to Jesus’ historical life or ministry (cf. Sanhedrin 107b and Gittin 57a). The confusion is compounded as many of these references mention characters who lived either during the Hasmonean dynasty 80 or so years before Jesus’ birth or during the Bar Kokhba Revolt 100 years after his death. The passage I’ve included here is, in my estimation, the only one which most directly relates to Jesus’ actual life and death. Even so, there’s much debate over whether this really refers to the Jesus of the New Testament or not.

(24) Clarification added by me.

(25) The Soncino Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a. Transl. By Jacob Shachter. Ed. By Rabbi Dr. I Epstein (1935).

(26) cf. Luke 1:1-4.

(27) 53-54 AD.

(28) Robert Wall, New Interpreter's Bible, Vol. 10 (Abingdon Press, 2002), 373.

(29) ESV.

(30) The last work listed was probably the first of these written in the 1st century, as a Manual for Church discipline and practice, and possibly by the Apostles themselves.

(31) “Quadratus.” Ed. By Charles Herbermann. Catholic Encyclopedia. (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1913).

(32) Eusebius, Church History (Book 4, 3:2). Translated by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Ed. by Philip Schaff & Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.) Ed. for New Advent by Kevin Knight.

#Jesus #HistoricalJesus #ChristMyth #NewAtheism #Atheism #Christianity #Josephus #Seutonius #Tacitus #Pliny #Lucian #Talmud #History #Osiris #Serapis #Mithras #SolInvictus

Worthy Church Writings

The following list is part of an attempt on my part to distinguish worthy, substantial Church writings throughout the ages from those that are unworthy (at best heterodox, at worst heretical). These lists are meant to guide Christians who want to broaden their theological horizons and strengthen their understanding of Christian thought. The "Worthy" List contains those major writings which have met the standards I have described below.

I use three primary criteria in deciding what is worthy and what is unworthy. In descending order of precedence, they are as follows: first, the writing must conform to the plain words of Scripture. As scripture is not always plain (and as our God is by nature mysterious), where a debate may come up about the scriptural conformity of a writing, we look to the second and third criteria for guidance. The second criterion that I use is conformity to the Ecumenical Councils (in order of rank or precedence: 1 & 2, then 3 & 4, and finally 5 through 7). But as even these are debated from one group of Christians to the next, I primarily use the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD) and the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem (c. 50 AD). The final criterion I use is Church tradition. Those teachings generally held to be influential through the ages, written by the apostles or those who knew them (i.e. the Apostolic Fathers) or those attested by accepted orthodox historians are included in the Worthy Church Writings list (assuming they meet the first two criteria, of course).

Those teachings which meet all of the above criteria are generally considered worthy and should allowed for use in Christian discipleship. It is the Worthy List that I enumerate below.

I. Old Testament (39 Readings)

A. Pentateuch

1. Genesis (922 – 401) Read

2. Exodus (700 – 401) Read

3. Leviticus (550 – 401) Read

4. Numbers (550 – 401) Read

5. Deuteronomy (c. 621) Read

B. Historical Books

1. Joshua (640 – 600) Read

2. Judges (640 – 538) Read

3. Ruth (c. 900 – 500) Read

4. 1 Samuel (Gk 1 Kingdoms; Vulgate 1 Kings) (640 – 538) Read

5. 2 Samuel (Gk 2 Kingdoms; Vulgate 2 Kings) (640 – 538) Read

6. 1 Kings (Gk 3 Kingdoms; Vulgate 3 Kings) (621 – 586) Read

7. 2 Kings (Gk 4 Kingdoms; Vulgate 4 Kings) (621 – 586) Read

8. 1 Chronicles (Gk 1 Paralipomenon) (450 – 435) Read

9. 2 Chronicles (Gk 2 Paralipomenon) (450 – 435) Read

10. Ezra (Gk 2 Esdras; Vulgate App. 1 Esdras) (c. 459) Read

11. Nehemiah (Gk 2 Esdras; Vulgate App. 2 Esdras) (c. 459) Read

12. Esther (355 – 201) Read

C. Poetical and Wisdom Books

1. Job (400 – 301) Read

2. Psalms (1000 – 501)

3. Proverbs (970 – 201)

4. Ecclesiastes (400 – 150)

5. Song of Solomon (400 – 200)

D. Major Prophetic Books

1. Isaiah (785 – 500)

2. Jeremiah (c. 586)

3. Lamentations (c. 586)

4. Ezekiel (593 – 571) Read

5. Daniel (c. 167)

E. Minor Prophetic Books

1. Hosea (c. 780 – 710) Read

2. Joel (835 – 500) Read

3. Amos (750 – 749) Read

4. Obadiah (600 – 550) Read

5. Jonah (500 – 300) Read

6. Micah (735 – 700) Read

7. Nahum (740 – 700) Read

8. Habakkuk (609 – 598) Read

9. Zephaniah (640 – 622) Read

10. Haggai (520) Read

11. Zechariah (520 – 518) Read

12. Malachi (515 – 445) Read

II. Apocrypha/Deuterocanonon (28 Readings)

A. Roman Catholic

1. Tobit (c. 200 – 101 BC)

2. Judith (165 – 37 BC) Antilegomena

3. Additions to Esther (+ Gk Esther) (200 BC – 93 AD) Antilegomena

4. Wisdom of Solomon (c. 200 – 1 BC) Antilegomela

5. Ecclesiasticus/Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach (180 – 175 BC)

6. Baruch (164 – 63 BC)

7. Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Ch. 6) (317 – 100 BC)

8. Additions to Gk Daniel

a. Prayer of Azariah & Song of the Three Jews (175 – 164 BC)

b. Susanna (c. 100 BC)

c. Bel and the Dragon (500 – 300 BC)

9. 1 Maccabees (c. 100 BC)

10. 2 Maccabees (c. 100 – 50 BC)

B. Greek and Slavonic

1. 1 Esdras (Slav. 2 Esdras; Vulgate App. 3 Esdras) (c. 200 BC – 100 BC)

2. Prayer of Manasseh (Vulgate App.) (200 – 1 BC)

3. Psalm 151 (Gk follows 150) by David King of Israel Read

4. 3 Maccabees (c. 50 – 1 BC)

C. Slavonic and Latin Vulgate Appendix

1. 2 Esdras (Slav. 3 Esdras; Vulgate App. 4 Esdras) (70 – 450/800 AD)

D. Greek Appendix

1. 4 Maccabees (c. 100 BC – 40 AD)

2. Book of Odes

E. Ethiopian Orthodox

1. Enoch (c. 160 BC) Antilegomena Read

2. Jubilees (135 – 105 BC)

3. 1 Meqabyan/Maccabees

4. 2 Meqabyan/Maccabees

5. 3 MeqabyanMaccabees

6. 4 Baruch (Paraleipomena of Jeremiah)

F. Syriac Peshitta

1. Psalms 152 – 155 Read

2. 2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch) (70 – 150 AD)

G. Old Church Slavonic

1. 3 Baruch (Greek Apocalypse of Baruch) (70 – 150 AD)

III. Dead Sea Scrolls (13 Readings – only those not included elsewhere)

A. Phylactery (200 BC – 100 AD)

B. Rule of the Congregation (200 BC – 100 AD)

C. Community Rule/Discipline Scroll/Manual of Discipline (200 BC – 100 AD)

D. Rule of the Blessing (200 BC – 100 AD)

E. Calendrical Document (200 BC – 100 AD)

F. Torah Precepts (200 BC – 100 AD)

G. Hosea Commentary (200 BC – 100 AD)

H. Prayer for King Jonathan (200 BC – 100 AD)

I. Sabbath Sacrifice Scroll (200 BC – 100 AD)

J. Damascus Document (200 BC – 100 AD)

K. War Rule Scroll/War of the Sons of Levi Against the Sons of Darkness (200 BC – 100 AD)

L. Testament of Levi (200 BC – 100 AD)

M. Copper Scroll (200 BC – 100 AD)

IV. New Testament (27 Readings)

A. Gospels

1. Matthew (c. 70 – 100) Apostle, Martyr Read

2. Mark (c. 65 – 75) Pope of Alexandria, Martyr Read

3. Luke (c. 70 – 100) Read

4. John by St. John the Evangelist (c. 90 – 100) Apostle, Pillar of the Church Read

B. Acts of the Apostles by St. Luke (c. 70 – 100) Read

C. Pauline & Pastoral Epistles

1. Romans by St. Paul (58) Apostle, Martyr Read

2. 1 Corinthians by St. Paul (57) Apostle, Martyr Read

3. 2 Corinthians by St. Paul (58) Apostle, Martyr Read

4. Galatians by St. Paul (57 – 58) Apostle, Martyr Read

5. Ephesians by Disputed (c. 62 – 170) Read

6. Philippians by St. Paul Apostle, Martyr Read

7. Colossians by St. Paul/Disputed (57 – 62) Read

8. 1 Thessalonians by St. Paul (52) Apostle, Martyr Read

9. 2 Thessalonians by Disputed Read

10. 1 Timothy by Disputed (62 – 140) Read

11. 2 Timothy by Disputed Read

12. Titus by Disputed (66 – 67) Read

13. Philemon by St. Paul Apostle, Martyr Read

14. Hebrews by Disputed (60 – 100) Antilegomena Read

D. Catholic Epistles

1. Epistle of James By St. James the Just/Disputed (c. 54 – 62) Desposyni, Pillar of the Church, Patriarch of Jerusalem, Martyr Read

2. 1 Peter by St. Peter/Disputed (c. 60 – 64/70 – 90) Apostle, Pillar of the Church, Pope of Rome, Martyr Read

3. 2 Peter by Disputed (c. 150) Antilegomena Read

4. 1 John by St. John the Evangelist (90 – 110) Apostle, Pillar of the Church Read

5. 2 John by St. John the Presbyter (90 – 110) Priest Read

6. 3 John by St. John the Presbyter (90 – 110) Priest Read

7. Jude by Disputed (c. 66 – 125) Antilegomena Read

E. Revelation/Apocalypse of John by St. John of Patmos (68 – 96) Apostle, Pillar of the Church, Antilegomena Read

V. Apostolic Fathers (16 Readings)

A. The Didache (c. 50 – 120) Read

B. Epistle of St. Barnabas by St. Barnabas/Disputed (c. 70 – 120) Apostle, Martyr Read

C. First Epistle to the Corinthians by St. Clement I (96) Pope of Rome, Martyr, Eth.O. NT Read

D. Seven Epistles of St. Ignatius (107) Patriarch of Antioch, Martyr

1. Ephesians Read

2. Magnesians Read

3. Trallians Read

4. Romans Read

5. Philadelphians Read

6. Smyrnaeans Read

7. Polycarp Read

E. The Shepherd of Hermas (88 - 155) Eth.O. NT

F. Epistle to the Philippians by St. Polycarp (c. 107 – 140) Bishop of Smyrna, Martyr Read

G. Interpretations of the Sayings of the Lord (Fragment) by St. Papias (c. 115 – 140) Bishop of Hierapolis, Martyr Read

I. Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus (c. late 100s) Read

J. Second (Clementine) Epistle to the Corinthians by Disputed (140 – 160) Antilegomena Read

K. Martyrdom of St. Polycarp (150 – 160) Read

VI. Ante-Nicene Fathers (39 Readings)

A. St. Justin Martyr Martyr

1. First Apology (c. 155)

2. Dialogue with Trypho (c. 100 – 165)

3. Second Apology (c. 161)

B. Acts of Paul (c. 160) Apocryphal, Antilegomena, Eth.O. NT

1. Acts of Paul and Thecla Read

2. Third Epistle to the Corinthians Read

3. Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul Read

4. Martyrdom of Paul Read

C. St. Clement of Alexandria * (c. 150 – 216)

1. Protrepticus/Exhortation to the Greeks

2. Paedagogus/Instructor

3. Stromata/Miscellanies

4. The Rich Man’s Salvation Read

D. Octavius by Marcus Minucius Felix (c. 150 – 260)

E. Apologia ad Autolycum by Theophilus (c. 169 – 183) Patriarch of Jerusalem

F. The Muratorian Fragment (c. 170) Read

G. Tatian

1. Diatessaron (c. 175)

2. Oratio ad Graecos

H. Athenagoras of Athens (c. 177 – 190)

1. On the Resurrection of the Dead

2. A Plea for the Christians Read

I. Against Heresies by St. Irenaeus (c. 185) Bishop of Lugdunum

J. St. Serapion (190 – 211) Patriarch of Antioch

1. Epistle to Caricus and Ponticus Fragment Read

2. Concerning the Gospel of Peter Fragment Read

K. Tertullian (197) Priest

1. Apologeticum (197)

2. Prescription Against Heretics

3. The Chaplet

L. Refutation of All Heresies – Philosophoumena I, IV – X by St. Hippolytus of Rome (c. 200 – 250) Priest, Doctor of the Church, Anti-Pope of Rome **

M. St. Cyprian of Carthage (c. 245 – 258) Bishop of Carthage, Martyr

1. De Unitate Ecclesiae

2. Treatise VIII – On Works and Alms (254) Read

N. Origen (248) Priest ***

1. Against Celsus

2. De Principiis

O. Epistles of St. Dionysius the Great of Alexandria (c. 248 – 264) Pope of Alexandria

1. Pope Stephen

2. Pope Xystus

P. Commodianus (c. 250)

1. Instructiones

2. Carmen Apologeticum

Q. Ekthesis tis Pesteos/Exposition of the Faith by St. Gregory Thaumaturgus the Wonder Worker (260 – 270) Bishop of Neocaesarea ‡

R. Preparation for the Gospel by Eusebius (c. 275 – 339) Bishop of Caesarea

S. St. Methodius (c. 300) Bishop of Olympus, Martyr

1. Peri tou Autexousiou/On Free Will

2. Aglaophon he peri tes Anastaseos/On the Resurrection

T. Adversus Nationes by Arnobius of Sicca (c. 303)

U. De Opificio Dei/The Works of God by Lactantius (303 – 304)

VII. Desert Fathers (8 Readings)

A. St. Anthony the Great (c. 251 – 356) Monk

1. Discourse on Demons

2. Letter to Theodore Read

B. The Paradise of the Desert Fathers (c. 300 – 450) translated and compiled by Benedicta Ward SLG, D.Phil.

1. The Sayings of the Desert Fathers Read

2. The Lives of the Desert Fathers Read

3. The Wisdom of the Desert Fathers

C. St. John Cassian (360 – 433) Monk

3. The Institutes

4. The Conferences

D. Historia Eremitica by Tyrannius Rufinus of Aquileia (390 – 410) Priest, Monk

VIII. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (71 Readings)

A. Four Great Western Doctors

1. St. Ambrose (c. 340 – 397) Archbishop of Milan

a. De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento

b. Hymns

(1) Deus creator omnium/God that all Things Didst Create Read

(2) Aeterne rerum conditor/Maker of all, Creator King Read

(3) Jam (or Iam) surgit hora tertia

(4) Veni, redemptor gentium/O Come, Redeemer of the Earth Read

2. Against Jovinianus by St. Jerome (393) Priest, Monk

3. St. Augustine of Hippo Bishop of Hippo, Monk, Doctor Gratiae

a. Confessions (397 – 398)

b. On Christian Doctrine (397 – 426)

c. The City of God (410 – 430)

d. On Free Choice of the Will

4. St. Gregory the Great Pope of Rome

a. The Rule for Pastors (c. 590)

b. Dialogues: 2^nd Book – The Life of Saint Benedict Read

B. Four Great Eastern Doctors

1. St. Athanasius (c. 298 – 373) Pope of Alexandria

a. On the Holy Spirit

b. Life of Antony

c. Nicene Creed (325) Read

d. On the Incarnation Read

e. Letter to Marcellinus on the Interpretation of the Psalms

2. St. Basil the Great (c. 330 – 379) Bishop of Caesarea, Hierarch, Monk ‡

a. De Spiritu Sancto/On The Holy Spirit

b. Against Eunomius

c. Lesser Asketikon

d. Letters

(1) II – To Gregory

(2) XIV – To His Friend

3. St. Gregory of Nazianzus the Theologian (c. 329 – 389) Patriarch of Constantinople, Hierarch ‡

a. Five Theological Orations

b. First Letter to Cledonius the Presbyter

c. Second Letter to Cledonius the Presbyter

4. St. John Chrysostom Patriarch of Constantinople, Monk, Hierarch

a. Homilies on Matthew: LXIII Read

b. Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life (before 386)

c. On the Priesthood

C. Hymns Against Heresies by St. Ephrem the Syrian (310 – 373) Deacon, Monk

D. Canons of the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (325) †

E. Apostles’ Creed (c. 340 – 750) Read

F. The Demonstrations by Aphrahat of Persia (344)

G. Katecheseis by St. Cyril of Jerusalem (347 – 348) Patriarch of Jerusalem, Doctor of the Church

H. Philokalia compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain (c. 350 – 1450) Monk

H. De Synodis/ De Fide Orientalum by St. Hilary of Poitiers (358) Bishop of Poitiers, Doctor of the Church

I. St. Gregory of Nyssa (372 – 394) Bishop of Nyssa ‡

1. Why There are not Three Gods

2. Catechesis

J. Canons of the First Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (381) †

K. St. Cyril of Alexandria (412 – 444) Pope of Alexandria

1. De Incarnatione Unigeniti

2. Quod unus sit Christus

L. Theodoret (423 – 457) Bishop of Cyrrhus

1. De Providential

2. Eranistes etoi Polymorphos/Beggars or Multiform

M. Athanasian Creed (428 – 542) Read

N. The Commonitory by St. Vincent of Lérins (434)

O. Historia Ecclesiastica by Soctrates of Constantinople (c. 439)

P. The Tome by St. Leo I the Great (449) Pope of Rome

Q. De Viris Illustribus by Gennadius Scholasticus of Massilia (c. 495) Priest

R. Rule of St. Benedict by St. Benedict of Nursia (c. 530) O.S.B.

S. Book of the Union by Babai the Great (d. 628)

T. Fountain Head of Knowledge by St. John of Damascus (c. 660 – 750) Priest, Monk, Doctor of the Church

U. Collected Works: Part I (82 Homilies) by Isaac of Nineveh (c. 676 – 700) Bishop of Nineveh, Monk

V. Proslogion by St. Anselm of Canterbury (1077 – 1078) Archbishop of Canterbury

W. Sententiarum Libri Quatuor by Peter Lombard (1155 – 1158) Bishop of Paris

X. Summa Theologiae by St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1265 – 1274) Priest, O.P., Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis

Y. The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis (c. 1418) Priest, Monk

Z. St. Teresa of Avila O.C.D., Doctor of the Church

1. El Camino de Perfeccion (The Way of Perfection) (1535 – 1567)

2. El Castillo Interior (The Interior Castle) (1577)

AA. St. John of the Cross (c. 1577 – 1591) Priest, O.C.D., Doctor of the Church

1. Collected Works

a. Poems Read

b. Sayings of Light and Love Read

c. Ascent of Mount Carmel

d. Dark Night of the Soul

e. Spiritual Canticle (1577 – 1578)

f. Living Flame of Love

g. Special Counsels

(1) Precautions

(2) Counsels to a Religious

(3) Censure and Opinion

h. Letters

BB. The Practice of the Presence of God by Brother Lawrence (c. 1610 – 1691) Monk

CC. Pensées by Blaise Pascal (c. 1662)

DD. Thomas Merton Priest, O.C.S.O.

1. Thirty Poems (1944)

2. The Seven Storey Mountain (1948)

3. Seeds of Contemplation (1949)

IX. Protestant Fathers (69 Readings)

A. Summa Theologiae by John Wycliffe (c. 1320 – 1384) D.D.

B. De Ecclesia by Jan Hus (c. 1370 – 1415) Priest, M.Th., Martyr

C. Petr Chelčický

1. On Spiritual Warfare (1421)

2. On the Triple Division of Society

3. Net of Faith (c. 1443)

D. Martin Luther Priest, Monk, Th.D.

1. 95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences (1517) Read

2. Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520)

3. On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520)

4. On the Freedom of a Christian (1520) Read

5. Open Letter to Pope Leo X (1520) Read

E. Huldrych Zwingli Priest, M.Div., Martyr

1. On the True & False Religion (1525)

2. Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen

3. Archeteles

F. William Tyndale Martyr

1. Parable of the Wicked Mammon (1528)

2. Obedience of a Christian Man (1528)

G. Institutes of the Christian Religion by John Calvin (1536) LL.D

H. Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury, Martyr

1. First Book of Homilies (1547)

2. 42 Articles

3. Book of Common Prayer

I. First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women by John Knox (1558) Priest

J. The Book of Martyrs (abridged) by John Foxe (1563) Priest, M.A.

K. The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan (1660 – 1684) Pastor

L. Jonathan Edwards Pastor

1. Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746)

2. Freedom of the Will (1754)

3. Original Sin

4. Nature of True Virtue

5. Sermons

a. Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741) Read

b. Pardon for the Greatest Sinners Read

c. The Excellency of Christ

d. Wicked Men Useful in Their Destruction Only

M. John Wesley Priest, M.A. (c. 1720 – 1791)

1. Earnest Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion

2. Farther Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion

3. A Plain Account of Christian Perfection (1766)

4. Sermons

a. Salvation by Faith

b. The Almost Christian

c. Catholic Spirit

N. Charles Haddon Spurgeon Pastor

1. The Saint and his Saviour (1857)

2. Commenting and Commentaries (1876)

3. Sermons

a. The Immutability of God (1855) Read

b. The Remembrance of Christ (1855)

c. The Sin of Unbelief (1855)

d. The Personality of the Holy Ghost (1855)

e. The Comforter (1855)

O. Orthodoxy by G.K. Chesterton (1908)

P. Dietrich Bonhoeffer Pastor, Martyr

1. The Cost of Discipleship (1937)

2. Letters and Papers from Prison

Q. Clive Staples Lewis M.A.

1. The Problem of Pain (1940)

2. The Screwtape Letters (1942) Read

3. Mere Christianity (1943)

4. The Great Divorce (1946) Read

5. Miracles (1947)

6. A Grief Observed (1961) Read

R. Aiden Wilson Tozer Pastor

1. The Pursuit of God (1957)

2. The Knowledge of the Holy (1961)

S. The Politics of Jesus by John Howard Yoder (1972)

T. God of the Oppressed by James H. Cone (1975)

U. John Piper Pastor, Th.D.

1. Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist (1986)

2. Don’t Waste Your Life (2003)

3. The Passion of Jesus Christ (2004)

V. Daughters of the Church by Ruth A Tucker Ph.D. and Walter Liefeld Ph.D. (1987)

W. Systematic Theology by Wayne Grudem (1994) Ph.D.

X. Rob Bell Pastor, Mdiv.

1. NOOMA Videos: I – XXIV (2002 – 2008) I – III, VII – IX

2. Velvet Elvis (2005)

3. Sex God (2007)

4. Sermons

i. Everything is Spiritual (2006) Seen

ii. The Gods aren’t Angry (2007) Seen

Y. Donald Miller

1. Blue Like Jazz (2003)

2. Searching for God Knows What (2004)

3. Through Painted Deserts (2005)

310 Readings Total

112 Readings Read

Note: This list is only a shallow reflection of the diversity of Christian thought that can still be considered orthodox (right teaching), but which vary greatly both in geography and sectarian affiliation. It is an attempt at providing a guide to orthodox Christian thought through the ages in its many forms. Within this list are included prophets, saints, and martyrs, but also some who have been considered heretics and even one anti-pope. Even with all the politics, claims, and counter claims, to the best of my understanding, all these men and women sought to bring glory to God in their writing. This list is by no means comprehensive and is only a sampling of what each author wrote. Many wrote huge volumes, but I’m pretty sure nobody has the time to get through them all (at least I don’t, anyway). I did try to get a pretty good mix in; the list includes creeds, canons, poems, treatises, biographies, martyrologies, and sermons. I also tried to include writings from both the East and the West, spanning the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. Representatives from the Five traditional Great Sees, or the Pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria are included as well.

Occasionally, written in blue italics, an abbreviation appears that designates where a current Christian community considers an apocryphal work as New Testament scripture. In this case, the community name may be abbreviated (ex. Eth.O. for Ethiopian Orthodox) and New Testament is abbreviated NT. These books aren’t given their own subsection because they are very few and usually isolated to one or two communities/Communions.

Also, where the designation “Martyr” is present, this refers only to the manner of death for defending their faith in Christ, without recanting at the end, or for retracting an earlier recant. However, there are many noteworthy examples among these writers of men who died of illness brought on by over exhertion in their ministry, asceticism, or during exile, or otherwise experienced torture, woundings, or suffering in their lifetime. Those who were arrested, and because of their Christian confession were thrown into prison, usually facing torture, but who weren’t killed for the Gospel, are deemed Confessors. Also, I don’t include any that died in battle and if they fought and killed others over their theology or beliefs, I didn’t include them anywhere in the list.

Finally, the designation “Saint” only reflects the distinction given by those Christian traditions who ascribe a methodology of giving the title to distinguish certain members of the Church. This distinction is therefore separate from the general term “Saints of the Church” given to all believers.

* Clement of Alexandria’s Sainthood was revoked by P. Clement VIII (1592 – 1605) due to unpaid parking tickets & the decision was upheld by P. Benedict XIV (1748), but was honored in martyrologies for well over a thousand years. So, while no longer honored as a saint, I include the title in this list anyway, as the decision to revoke his sainthood was made on the advice of his confessor C. Baronius and not on solid theological grounds.

** Hippolytus (c. 170 – 236) is often confused with a Bishop of Portus who shared his name and was a martyr. This Hippolytus, however, at one point was ordained as a rival Pope of Rome but in later records is always given the title of priest.

*** Origen was ordained priest in Palestine in 230, but later was recalled and deposed by Demetrius, Pope of Alexandria, not necessarily on doctrinal grounds but because of its irregularity with Alexandrian ecclesiastical discipline.

† Only the first two Ecumenical Councils are included, as the rest are contested by some form of the orthodox Church today. The Assyrian Church of the East considers only #1 and #2 valid; the Oriental Orthodox consider #1 through #4 valid; the Eastern Orthodox and Protestants (generally) consider #1 through #7 valid; and the Roman Catholics consider #1 through #21 valid. Also, the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholics each have their own version of #8.

‡ These theologians and saints were nicknamed the Cappadocian Fathers due to their bond of blood and friendship and their complementary works dealing with the Trinity and monasticism. St. Macrina, while not designated a Cappadocian Father can certainly be deemed a Cappadocian Mother since she inspired her two younger brothers, Basil and Gregory, into the ministry. Gregory Thaumaturgos, while not a Cappadocian Father in the sense that the others are so called, was still instrumental in bringing Christianity to the region (and therefore greatly influencing the others). It was said by Jerome that before he arrived there were only 7 Christians in Cappadocia and by the time he died there were hardly any pagans left.

Definitions: Antilegomena: Disputed authenticity, authorship, or value (according to early Church Fathers, although I still recognize their scripturalnessality, since that’s a real word); Desposyni: Blood relation to Christ.

Key: Authors, Dates, and Works in Black, Ordinations, Monastic Orders, Degrees, & Honors in Blue Italicised, Works I Have Read in Red.

See also Theodore of Mopsuestia, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas, St. Macrina the Teacher‡, Menno Simmons, Lavius Hyde.